Working memory difficulties

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School support section:

Advice for the classroom
School issues
Books and articles
Programmes, games & software
Useful addresses & websites

Home support section:

What are Working memory difficulties?
How will this affect my child?
How can I help?
Where can I find out more?

School support:

What are Working memory difficulties?

The working memory involves holding information in short-term storage (for example, remembering a phone number until you have dialled it) and sometimes having to hold it in mind and work on it at the same time (for example, mental arithmetic, or writing down the gist of a phone message while still talking).

Difficulties with working memory make it hard to hold information in ‘temporary storage’ or work with it – for example, difficulty in remembering and following instructions, or forgetting what has recently been said, or getting things in the wrong order, or needing to write everything down to avoid forgetting it.

Advice for the classroom:

Task awareness and organisation:
The pupil should be in no doubt as to what the task entails, and expectations should be realistic. For example, it may be too much for some children to write an essay on their ‘weekend activities’, but they may in the first instance be able to list four activities they did at the weekend. From this, they may then be able to develop a paragraph about their weekend. The pupil must therefore be clear in relation to the task and the expectations of the task.

Break down all tasks and instructions into small steps – he/she may find it hard to keep the whole picture in mind.

Structure and planning: use of headings and sub-headings helps to provide a structure for oral as well as written responses.

Understanding and following a sequence of instructions can be disproportionately difficult – give instructions one at a time, and offer to repeat information.

‘Multi-tasking’ will be difficult for him/her – especially, listening and writing at the same time can be very hard; please allow for this.

Time Needed:
Copying: even activities such as copying from a page can require additional time, as this activity can place a burden on short-term memory and working memory, as the transfer of information may have to be completed in more steps.

Allow plenty of time for mental operations – especially such things as mental maths, where there is an enormous working memory load – and encourage the use of a jotting pad/scratch pad to help retain information temporarily during mental operations.

Allow time for answers to oral questions – remember that he/she does not find it easy to marshal and organise his/her thoughts.

Allow for short breaks between tasks to allow him/her to rest.

The overlearning which is often necessary for children with working memory difficulties means that the learning processing can be more time-consuming: the pupil will need to work for longer on the same task than some other children.
Praise and Motivation:
Children with a difficulty in working and short-term processing can often expend more effort than other children in completing a task. The pupil probably has to work disproportionately hard to achieve at the level he/she is achieving, and will become very tired.

Let the pupil know you are aware of his/her difficulty, and that you are sympathetic – but that you have high expectations.

Be specially generous with praise and cautious with criticism. Praise can be a natural motivator as long as the child feels the praise is genuine and deserved. It is important to let the pupil know why he/she is being praised rather than just to provide praise. In a behavioural reward system with extrinsic rewards such as stickers or points, the child can easily see why he/she is being praised. This can be an effective motivator, as long as the rewards are meaningful and appropriate.
Homework Diary:
It may also be useful to ensure that there is an agreed format for a personal homework diary. It is important that the pupil is able to locate information readily from his/her diary.
An electronic personal organiser can store vast amounts of data and can be synchronised with laptop and desktop computers. Used regularly, this can be extremely beneficial for the older pupil with memory difficulties.

School issues:

Ensure that all the pupil's teachers know about the difficulty and understand its implications.
Consider requests to examination boards for use of formulae sheets in examinations, and allow these in classwork, if appropriate.

Books & articles:

Agnew, M., Barlow, S., Pascal, L. and Skidmore, S. (1995) Get Better Grades – Cool Study Skills for Red Hot Results (Piccadily Press) – a short text on study skills, looking at attitude, organisation, listening and note-taking, reading and writing skills and revision for exams. The information is presented in an eye-catching manner and contains study strategies suitable for older children. It also offers a range of interesting and unusual strategies for developing memory skills

Baddeley, A. (1988) Working Memory (Oxford University Press).

Baddeley, A. (1994) Your Memory: A User's Guide (Avery Penguin Putnam).

Baddeley, A. (1997) Human Memory: Theory and Practice (Allyn & Bacon, revised edition).

Baddeley, A. (1999) Essentials of Human Memory (Taylor & Francis).

Baddeley, A., Kopelman, M., and Wilson, B. (eds) (2002) The Handbook of Memory Disorders (Wiley, 2nd edition).

British Dyslexia Association, the Dyslexia Handbook, produced annually by the BDA, contains many short articles on dyslexia and associated difficulties, details of providers of resources and of British Dyslexia Association branches throughout Britain and Europe.

British Dyslexia Association (2002) Dyslexia-friendly Schools Pack (BDA).

Buzan, Tony (1993) The Mind Map© Book (revised edition) (BBC Books) – provides good examples of the use of the Mind Mapping© technique – an effective way to remember items visually which also helps to organise items.

Given, Barbara, and Reid, Gavin (1999) Learning Styles: A Guide for Teachers and Parents (Red Rose Publications) – provides a critical analysis of learning styles and insights into the five learning systems (emotional, social, cognitive, physical, and reflective) and practical applications of an observational checklist for identifying individual learning styles. This can be helpful in identifying appropriate learning styles for children with attention difficulties, and appropriate learning environments.

Hawley, G. (2002) SpLD Resources: a guide to the help available to parents of children with special needs – a useful 80-page compendium of information covering difficulties with reading and writing (dyslexia), numeracy (dyscalculia), handwriting (dyslexia), developmental coordination (dyspraxia), language impairment, autism and ‘attention deficit disorder’. Contains details of the national organisations that address it, together with a list of books, pamphlets and websites. The guide costs £4.50, including p & p, from Gillian Hawley (cheques to Gillian Hawley SpLD account), The Old Bakery, Radwinter Road, Ashton, Essex CB10 2ET (01799 584424). Readers in East Anglia, Rutland, Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire receive a free 30-page supplement listing more than 150 special needs teachers in the district.

Lannen, S., Lannen, C. and Reid, G. (1997) Specific Learning Difficulties (Dyslexia): a Resource Book for Parents and Teachers (Red Rose Publications).

Lazear, David (3rd edition 1999) Eight Ways of Knowing: Teaching for Multiple Intelligences, foreword by Howard Gardner (Skylight Professional Development, Arlington Heights, Ill.) – subtitled ‘A handbook of techniques for expanding intelligence’, this book is a follow-up to The Seven Ways of Knowing, by the same author. The addition concerns the eighth intelligence in the multiple intelligence spectrum developed by Gardner – naturalist intelligence. This is directly related to one’s recognition and appreciation of the natural world around us, and involves the abilities to discriminate different species and classify various flora, and one’s general knowledge of the natural world.
The author suggests that those with a highly developed natural intelligence would feel a lift if flowers were brought into a room or choose to relax by heading for the countryside. He suggests it is important to cultivate children’s naturalist intelligence through visits to the zoo, getting involved in projects relating to conservation and tree planting, etc.

This book also provides clear summaries and practical strategies for developing all eight intelligences.

Macintyre Christine and Deponio, Pamela (2003) Identifying and Supporting Children with Specific Learning Difficulties: looking beyond the label to assess the whole child (Routledge).

Moore, Kate (2000) Making Your Secondary Classroom Dyslexia-friendly (Desktop Publications) – this short A4 illustrated booklet provides some brief indication on aspects such as timetables, colour coding, giving instructions, making worksheets and other key aspects of a secondary classroom which can be challenging for pupils with dyslexic difficulties. There are also five photocopiable pages of memory activities for pupils, including how to remember months of the year and days of the week.

North, V., with Tony Buzan (2001) Get Ahead – Mind Map© Your Way to Success (Buzan Centres) – presents a colourful introduction to the use of mind maps and highlights the use of colours in learning and suggestions on how to use mind maps for activities such as note-taking, learning symbols, planning and speaking to groups. This is very suitable for all pupils, but particularly those with a dyslexic processing style, who may find it very useful for preparation for examinations.

O’Brien, Jonathan, Brain Trainer (1999) (Longman) – strategies for developing memory skills.

Reid, Gavin (2003) Dyslexia: A Practitioner’s Guide (Wiley, 3rd edition).

Reid, Gavin (2004) Dyslexia: A Complete Guide for Parents (Wiley).

SENCO Support Resources – Over 300 Practical Tips: ideas for resources and websites, by Fil Came (2001), available from Learning Works, 9 Barrow Close, Marlborough, Wiltshire SN8 2YY;
email: info@learning-works.org.uk; website: www.learning-works.org.uk

Programmes, Games and Software:

An excellent range of activities and games to aid word access and expressive language can be found on: http://members.tripod.com/~Caroline_Bowen/wordretrieval.html

Before Alpha: Learning Games for the Under Fives – this is a programme of learning games developed by Bev Hornsby (1996, Souvenir Press) which can be used with children under five. The games are in a series of structured stages, are multi-sensory and aim to foster language development and other pre-reading skills such as visual and auditory perception and discrimination, fine motor control, spatial relationships, knowledge of colour, number and directions.

Crossbow Education (41 Sawpit Lane, Brocton, Stafford ST17 0TE; tel: 01785 660902, website: www.crossboweducation.com ) specialise in games for children with difficulties in reading, spelling and memory and produce game activities on literacy and numeracy. These include Spingoes, an onset and rime spinner bingo which comprises a total of 120 games using onset and rime; and Funics, a practical handbook of activities to help children to recognise and use rhyming words, blend and segment syllables, identify initial phonemes and link sounds to symbols. Alphabet Lotto focuses on early phonics, Bing-Bang-Bong and CVC Spring help develop competence in short vowel sounds, and Deebees is a stick and circle board game to deal with b/d confusion.

Crossbow also publish materials such as Study Skills: A Multisensory Guide, by Jenni Beard (2000).

Inspiration is a software package to help the pupil develop ideas and organise thinking. Through the use of diagrams it helps the pupil comprehend concepts and information. Essentially, the use of diagrams can help to make creating and modifying concept maps and ideas easier. The user can also prioritise and rearrange ideas, helping with essay writing. Inspiration can therefore be used for brainstorming, organising, prewriting, concept mapping, planning and outlining. There are 35 ‘templates’ which can be used for a range of subjects, including English, History and Science. Dyslexic people often think in pictures rather than words. This technique can be used for note-taking, for remembering information and organising ideas for written work. The Inspiration program converts this image into a linear outline.

This program is available from IAnsyt Ltd (The White House, 72 Fen Road, Cambridge CB4 1UN; tel: 01223 420101; fax: 01223 426644), who also supply excellent reading and spelling computer programs suitable for dyslexic pupils.

Memory Trainers: techniques, games and systems to teach and improve memory skills (2001) – available from Learning Works, 9 Barrow Close, Marlborough, Wiltshire SN8 2YY; email: info@learning-works.org.uk;
website: www.learning-works.org.uk

Don Campbell (2001) Mozart Effect for Children: awakening your child’s mind – available from Anglo-American Book Company: www.anglo-american.co.uk

Paul Ginnis (2002) The Teachers Toolkit – Raise Classroom Achievement with Strategies for Every Learner (Crown House Publishing: www.crownhouse.co.uk)

Visualizing and Verbalizing for Language Comprehension and Thinking – developed by Nancy Bell (1991), this programme provides a comprehensive procedure for the use of visualising to promote and enhance reading and comprehension. The stages include picture imagery, word imagery, single sentence, multiple sentence, whole paragraph and whole page. Additionally, the programme provides an understanding of the functions of the gestalt hemisphere and useful strategies for classroom teaching. It is published by Academy of Reading Publications, Paso Robles, Calif.

Useful addresses & websites:

An excellent range of activities and games to aid word access and expressive language can be found on: http://members.tripod.com/~Caroline_Bowen/wordretrieval.html

British Dyslexia Association (BDA), 98 London Road, Reading, Berkshire, RG1 5AU; tel: 0118 966 2677; email: admin@bda-dyslexia.demon.co.uk; website: www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk

Buzan Centres Ltd, 54 Parkstone Road, Poole, Dorset BH15 2PG; website: www.Mind-Map.com

Computer games can be useful, as some of these can help with processing speed utilising both visual and auditory modalities – sources include:

Becta (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency), Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry CV4 7JJ; tel: 024 7641 6994; fax: 024 7641 1418; email: becta@becta.org.uk; website: www.becta.org.uk

The Happy Puzzle Company, www.happypuzzle.co.uk – a wide range of games, puzzles and challenges, to develop visual and spatial skills, motor skills, memory, problem-solving, and number skills.

KCS – Tools for the Computer Enabled, Freepost, Southampton SO17 1YA; tel: 0123 80584314; fax: 0123 80584320; email: info@keytools.com

Becta (British Educational and Technology Agency), Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry CV4 7JJ; tel: 024 7641 6994; fax: 024 7641 1418; email: becta@becta.org.uk

Xavier Educational Software Ltd, Psychology Department, University College of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2DG; tel: 01248 382616; fax: 01248 382599; email: xavier@bangor.ac.uk); website: www.xavier.bangor.ac.uk

Scottish Council for Educational Technology (SCET), 74 Victoria Crescent Road, Glasgow G12 9JN; tel: 0141 337 5051.

Crick Software, website: www.cricksoft.com/uk

Crossbow Education, 41 Sawpit Lane, Brocton, Stafford ST17 0TE; tel: 01785 660902; website: www.crossboweducation.com – games for learning.

Design Concept, 30 South Oswald Road, Edinburgh EH9 2HG; tel: 0131 668 2000.

Desktop Publications, 54 Railway Street, Barnetby-le-wold, North Lincolnshire DN38 6DQ; tel: 01652 688781; fax: 01652 688850, website: www.desktoppublications.co.uk

Dyslexia in Scotland, Stirling Business Centre, Wellgreen, Stirling FK8 2DZ; tel: 01786 446650; website: www.dyslexia-in-scotland.org

Dyslexia Institute, Head Office and National Training and Resource Centre, Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey TW20 0HH; tel: 01784 222300; fax: 01784 222333; email: info@dyslexia-inst.org.uk;
website: www.dyslexia-inst.org.uk

Dyslexia Institute, 133 Gresham Road, Staines, Middlesex, TW18 2AJ; tel: 01784 463851; website: www.dyslexia-inst.org.uk

Dyslexia Research Trust, website: www.dyslexic.org.uk – a detailed site giving current research, newsletter, conferences and publications, upcoming talks and lectures.

Dyslexia UK charity, website: www.dyslexia.uk.com – a knowledge site providing information and guidance on all topics relating to dyslexia.

Easylearn, Trent House, Fiskerton, Southwell, Notts. NG25 0UH; tel: 01636 830240; website: www.easylearn.co.uk

Fledglings, 6 Southfield, Ickleton, Saffron Waldon, CB10 1BE; tel: 0845 458 1124;
e-mail: enquiries@fledglings.org.uk; website: www.fledglings.org.uk – a free product and service search for families of children with special needs, for educational items and developmental toys.

Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre, Frensham, Farnham, Surrey GU10 3BW; tel: 01252 792400; website: www.arkellcentre.org.uk

Hornsby International Dyslexia Centre, Wye Street, London, SW11 2HB; tel: 020 7223 1144; website: www.hornsby.co.uk

iANSYST Ltd, Fen House, 72 Fen Road, Cambridge CB4 1UN; tel: 01223 420101; fax: 01223 426644; websites: www.dyslexic.com

Inclusive Technology, website: www.inclusive.co.uk

LDA, Duke Street, Wisbech, Cambs PE13 2AE; website: www.ldalearning.com

Multi-Sensory Learning, Highgate House, Grooms’ Lane, Creaton, Northants NN6 8NN; tel: 01536 399002.

Office for Advice, Assistance, Support and Information on Special Needs (OAASIS), Brock House, Grigg Lane, Brockenhurst, Hants SO42 7RE; helpline tel: 09068 633201, website: www.oaasis.co.uk – an advice, training and resource centre for parents and professionals.

National Association of Special Educational Needs (NASEN), Nasen House, 4-5 Amber Business Village, Amber Close, Amington, Tamworth B77 4RP; tel: 01827 311500; fax: 01827 313005; email: welcome@nasen.org.uk ; website: www.nasen.org.uk

Professional Association of Teachers of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties (Patoss), website: www.patoss-dyslexia.org

REM, Great Western House, Langport, Somerset TA10 9YU; tel: 01458 254750; fax: 01458 254751; website: www.r-e-m.co.uk

Scottish Sensory Centre, and CALL Centre, Moray House School of Education, University of Edinburgh, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ; tel: 0131 651 6501 – provides materials and advice on sensory difficulties, including language difficulties.

Scottish Sensory Centre promotes and supports new developments and effective practices in the education of children and young people with sensory impairments – that is; visual impairment, deaf and deafblind. SSC collaborates with education authorities, schools and groups of teachers, voluntary organisations, parents’ groups and young people themselves. Sister website: VI Scotland: www.viscotland.org.uk

SEMERC software publishers, website: www.blackcatsoftware.com

SEN Marketing, 618 Leeds Road, Outwood, Wakefield, West Yorkshire WF1 2LT; website: www.sen.uk.com

SpLD Resources, www.dyslexia.org.uk hosts a guide to the help available to parents of children with special needs – a useful compendium of information covering difficulties with reading and writing (dyslexia), numeracy (dyscalculia), handwriting (dyslexia), developmental coordination (dyspraxia), language impairment, autism and ‘attention deficit disorder’. Lists details of the national organisations that address a range of SEN needs, together with a list of books and pamphlets.

TextHelp Systems Ltd, Enkalon Business Centre, 25 Randalstown Road, Antrim BT41 4LJ, Northern Ireland; tel: + 44 1849 428 105; fax: +44 1849 428 574; email: info@texthelp.com; website: www.texthelp.com

www.dyslexics.org.uk – highly recommended coverage of things that can be done at home

www.dyslexiaa2z.com

www.gavinreid.co.uk – contains over 40 links and articles on dyslexia and details of publications.

www.learning-works.org.uk

Xavier Educational Software, website: www.xavier.bangor.ac.uk

Home support:

What are working memory difficulties?

How will this affect my child?

Children with a difficulty in working and short-term processing can often expend more effort than other children in completing a task. It is important when doing homework to allow for short breaks between periods of work, to allow the pupil to rest.

How can I help?

Effort and Fatigue:
In order for new learning to be fully assimilated, your child needs to use the information which is being learned, in as many different situations as possible. Encourage him/her to talk about what is being learned.
It is important to be aware of your expectations and the school’s expectations, and to reassess these to ensure they are realistic. It may be necessary to break goals down into smaller targets which are achievable.

Memory:
Memory games using cards or articles, toys, etc, will be helpful – some board games also require memory skills.
Provide only short lists of things to remember – this can provide practice at remembering. Start with only a few things, then add other items to the list.
Encourage the use of memory strategies – such as writing things down in a related group. For example, if doing shopping, list all the items for the kitchen together, then for the bathroom, then clothing, etc.
Try to encourage the use of drawings – children with working memory difficulties can often remember things better if they have some sort of visual image of the item or the material.
Many everyday family-type outings can be used to reinforce aspects such as processing speed, memory, organisation and reading, without it being obvious to the child. A visit to a museum, a shopping outing, word and picture games and ‘I spy’-type games can all reinforce school activities in a leisurely and stress-free manner.

Praise and Motivation:
Praise can be a natural motivator as long as the pupil feels the praise is genuine and deserved. It is important to let him/her know why he/she is being praised rather than just provide praise.
It can be easy for the child with working memory difficulties to be discouraged. It is crucial that motivation is maintained. One of the best motivators is success. If steps are small enough and targets are realistic, then the pupil will achieve some success and this will provide motivation for further learning.

Where can I find out more?

The technique called Mind Mapping© is usually an effective way to remember items visually, and this technique also helps to organise items. The Mind Map© Book by Tony Buzan (BBC Books) provides good examples of the use of this strategy.

The book by Agnew, Barlow, Pascal and Skidmore, Get Better Grades – Cool Study Skills for Red Hot Results (Piccadilly Press), also offers a range of interesting and unusual strategies for developing memory skills, as do the books by Jonathan O’Brien such as Brain Trainer (Longman).

Fledglings, 6 Southfield, Ickleton, Saffron Waldon, CB10 1BE; tel: 0845 458 1124;
e-mail: enquiries@fledglings.org.uk; website: www.fledglings.org.uk – a free product and service search for families of children with special needs, for educational items and developmental toys.

Memory Trainers: techniques, games and systems to teach and improve memory skills (2001) – available from Learning Works, 9 Barrow Close, Marlborough, Wiltshire SN8 2YY; email: info@learning-works.org.uk; website: www.learning-works.org.uk

Don Campbell (2001) Mozart Effect for Children: awakening your child’s mind – available from Anglo-American Book Company: www.anglo-american.co.uk

Books and materials on study skills can also be helpful in improving memory skills. There is a section on study skills in Dyslexia: A Practitioner’s Handbook, by Gavin Reid (Wiley).

British Dyslexia Association (BDA), 98 London Road, Reading, Berkshire, RG1 5AU; tel: 0118 966 2677www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk email: admin@bda-dyslexia.demon.co.uk; provides information and support to all members of the dyslexic community and professionals who support them.

Dyslexia UK, website: www.dyslexia.uk.com – a knowledge site providing information and guidance on all topics relating to dyslexia.